COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS SWEETENERS IN TERMS OF THEIR EFFECTS ON THE HUMAN BODY

This article discusses the most common sweeteners from the point of view of the impact on the human body. The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that modern humanity is constantly searching for ways to combat such diseases as diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, dental caries, which are associated with excessive sugar consumption. For thousands of years, humanity has been eating natural foods containing complex carbohydrates. Currently, the structure of the diet has changed - people began to consume refined refined carbohydrates, in other words, ordinary sugar. The daily sugar intake worldwide is close to 500 kcal per day, whereas the recommended daily sugar intake for a person of normal weight is about 25 g or 96 kcal per day. The availability of a variety offoods containing a large amount of sugar in the conditions of modern inactivity is one of the reasons for the growth of obesity and many related complications, such as hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and hyperlipidemia, predisposing to glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus. The most important effective therapeutic tool for the prevention and treatment of diabetes and its complications is to replace the consumption of refined carbohydrates with sugar substitutes that have a sweet taste, but do not contain calories and to a much lesser extent stimulate the secretion of insulin. Diseases of the oral cavity are also a serious problem of modern man. Therefore, from this point of view, the use of sweeteners is also relevant. This article presents a comparative analysis of natural and synthetic sugar-like substances (xylitol, maltitol, sorbitol, erythritol, sucralose, tagatose, arhat extract, allulose, inulin, stevia) according to their organoleptic and physico-chemical properties, sweetness, caloric content, and effects on the gastrointestinal tract and tooth enamel. The substances considered are comparable in taste to sugar, but do not have nutritional energy, do not contain glucose in their composition and are much slower to digest. They do not cause harm to health and can be used as a component of therapeutic dietary nutrition for patients with diabetes and people with excess body weight.

sweeteners, sweetness level, calorie content, gastrointestinal tract, tooth enamel

1. Сарафанова Л.А. Пищевые добавки: энциклопедия. - СПб.: ИД Профессия, 2012. - 776 с.

2. Tan, V. W. K., Wee, M. S. M., Tomic, O., Forde, C. G. Temporal sweetness and side tastes profiles of 16 sweeteners using temporal check-all-that-apply (TCATA). Food Research International. 2019; Vol. 121: 39-47. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2019.03.019

3. Митчелл Х. Подсластители и сахарозаменители - СПб.: - ИД Профессия, 2010. 512 с.

4. Islam, M. S., Indrajit, M. Effects of Xylitol on Blood Glucose, Glucose Tolerance, Serum Insulin and Lipid Profile in a Type 2 Diabetes Model of Rats. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. 2012; Vol. 61(1): 57-64. doi:10.1159/000338440

5. Makinen, K. K., Alanen, P., Isokangas, P., Isotupa, K., Soderling, E., Makinen, P.-L., Boxue, Z. Thirty-nine-month xylitol chewing-gum programme in initially 8-year-old school children: a feasibility study focusing on mutans streptococci and lactobacilli. International Dental Jour-nal. 2008; Vol. 58(1): 41-50. doi:10.1111/j.1875-595x.2008.tb00175.x

6. Silva CF,Silva FE, Pauna HF, Hurtado JM, Santos MC. Symptom assessment after nasal irrigation with xylitol in the postoperative period of endonasal endoscopic surgery. Braz J Otorhino-laryngol. 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bjorl.2020.05.023

7. Tomonobu, N., Komalasari, N. L. G. Y., Sumardika, I. W., Jiang, F., Chen, Y., Yamamo-to, K., Sakaguchi, M. (2020). Xylitol acts as an anticancer monosaccharide to induce selective cancer death via regulation of the glutathione level. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 324, 109085. doi:10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109085

8. Koizumi, N., Fujii, M., Ninomiya, R., Inoue, Y., Kagawa, T., Tsukamoto, T. Studies on transitory laxative effects of sorbitol and maltitol. Chemosphere. 1983; Vol. 12(1): 117124. doi:10.1016/0045-6535(83)90187-x

9. Maguire, A., Rugg-Gunn, J., Wright, G. Adaptation of dental plaque to metabolise maltitol compared with other sweeteners. Journal of Dentistry. 2000; Vol. 28(1): 5159. doi:10.1016/s0300-5712(99)00050-0

10. Grembecka, M. Sugar alcohols-their role in the modern world of sweeteners: a review. European Food Research and Technology. 2015; Vol. 241(1): 1-14. doi:10.1007/s00217-015-2437-7

11. Shahidul Islam, M., Nishiyama, A., Sakaguchi, E. Sorbitol and lactitol reduce body fat and toxic ammonia levels in rats. Nutrition Research. 2007; Vol. 27(7): 440447. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2007.04.019

12. Sarmiento-Rubiano, L. A., Zuniga, M., Perez-Martinez, G., & Yebra, M. J. (2007). Dietary supplementation with sorbitol results in selective enrichment of lactobacilli in rat intestine. Research in Microbiology, 158(8-9), 694-701. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.007

13. Daniels, L. B., Peterson, R. L., Piper, E. L., Rakes, J. M. Sorbitol in Diet of Young Dairy Calves. Journal of Dairy Science. 1981; Vol. 64(3): 449-453. doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(81)82592-1

14. Szoke, J., Banoczy, J., Proskin, H. M. Effect of After-meal Sucrose-free Gum-chewing on Clinical Caries. Journal of Dental Research. 2001; Vol. 80(8): 17251729. doi:10.1177/00220345010800080901

15. Корпачев В.В. Сахара и сахарозаменители. - Киев: Книга плюс, 2004. - 320 с.

16. Runnel, R., Makinen, K. K., Honkala, S., Olak, J., Makinen, P.-L., Nommela, R., Saag, M. Effect of three-year consumption of erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol candies on various plaque and salivary caries-related variables. Journal of Dentistry. 2013; Vol. 41(12): 12361244. doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2013.09.007

17. Ensor M, Banfield AB, Smith RR, Williams J, Lodder RA. Safety and efficacy of d-tagatose in glycemic control in subjects with type 2 diabetes. J Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2015; Vol. 3(1): 1065. PMC4820068

18. Hossain, A., Yamaguchi, F., Matsuo, T., Tsukamoto, I., Toyoda, Y., Ogawa, M., Toku-da, M. Rare sugar d-allulose: Potential role and therapeutic monitoring in maintaining obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2015; Vol. 155: 4959. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.08.004

19. Iida, T., Hayashi, N., Yamada, T., Yoshikawa, Y., Miyazato, S., Kishimoto, Y., Izumori, K. Failure of d-psicose absorbed in the small intestine to metabolize into energy and its low large intestinal fermentability in humans. Metabolism. 2010; Vol. 59(2): 206214. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2009.07.018

20. Hossain, M. A., Kitagaki, S., Nakano, D., Nishiyama, A., Funamoto, Y., Matsunaga, T. Rare sugar d-psicose improves insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetes Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2011; Vol. 405(1): 7-12. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.12.091

21. Kimura, T., Kanasaki, A., Hayashi, N., Yamada, T., Iida, T., Nagata, Y., & Okuma, K. D-Allulose enhances postprandial fat oxidation in healthy humans. Nutrition. 2017; Vol. 43-44: 16-20. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2017.06.007

22. Shoaib, M., Shehzad, A., Omar, M., Rakha, A., Raza, H., Sharif, H. R., Shakeel А., An-sari, A., Niazi, S. Inulin: Properties, health benefits and food applications. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2016; Vol. 147: 444-454. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.04.020

23. Van der Beek, C. M., Canfora, E. E., Kip, A. M., Gorissen, S. H. M., Olde Damink, S. W. M., van Eijk, H. M. The prebiotic inulin improves substrate metabolism and promotes short-chain fatty acid production in overweight to obese men. Metabolism Clinical and Experimental. 2018; Vol. 87: 25-35. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2018.06.009

24. Chen, H.-J., Dai, F.-J., Chang, C.-R., Lau, Y.-Q., Chew, B.-S., Chau, C.-F. Impact of dietary ingredients on the interpretation of various fecal parameters in rats fed inulin. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 2019; Vol. 27: 869-875. doi:10.1016/j.jfda.2019.06.005

25. Qin, X., Xiaojian, S., Ronggan, L., Yuxian, W., Zhunian, T., Shouji, G., Heimbach, J. Subchronic 90-day oral (Gavage) toxicity study of a Luo Han Guo mogroside extract in dogs. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2006; Vol. 44(12): 2106-2109. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.07.023

26. Suzuki, Y. A., Tomoda, M., Murata, Y., Inui, H., Sugiura, M., Nakano, Y. Antidiabetic effect of long-term supplementation with Siraitia grosvenori on the spontaneously diabetic Goto -Kakizaki rat. British Journal of Nutrition. 2007; Vol. 97(04): 770775. doi:10.1017/s0007114507381300

27. Jin, M., Muguruma, M., Moto, M., Okamura, M., Kashida, Y., Mitsumori, K. Thirteen-week repeated dose toxicity of Siraitia grosvenori extract in Wistar Hannover (GALAS) rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2007; Vol. 45(7): 1231-1237. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.12.030

28. Ahmad, U., & Ahmad, R. S. (2018). Anti diabetic property of aqueous extract of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni leaves in Streptozotocin-induced diabetes in albino rats. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 18:179. doi:10.1186/s12906-018-2245-2

29. Chen, J., Xia, Y., Sui, X., Peng, Q., Zhang, T., Li, J., & Zhang, J. (2018). Steviol, a natural product inhibits proliferation of the gastrointestinal cancer cells intensively. Oncotarget, 9(41). doi:10.18632/oncotarget.25233

30. Mehta, R., Kumar Pundir, R., Sakhare, D., K. Sharma, A. Herbal Formulation Against Dental Caries Causing Microorganisms Using Extracts of Stevia Rebaudiana Leaves (A Natural Sweetner). The Natural Products Journal. 2016; Vol. 6(2): 126-133. doi:10.2174/2210315506666160218231648

31. Grotz, V. L., Pi-Sunyer, X., Porte, D., Roberts, A., Richard Trout, J. A 12-week randomized clinical trial investigating the potential for sucralose to affect glucose homeostasis. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2017; Vol. 88: 22-33. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.05.011

32. Risdon S., Paillargue M., Meyer G., Walther G. Non-nutritive sweetener sucralose chronic consumption is able to reduce the deleterious effect of high-fat diet on body composition, glucose metabolism and vascular function in C57BL/6JR mice. Archives of Cardiovascular Diseases Supplements. 2020; Vol. 12: 2-4, Page 208. doi: 10.1016/j.acvdsp.2020.03.023